Emperors, Herbalists, and Garden Royalty: The Enduring Reign of the Peony
Few flowers command the reverence accorded to peonies. For over two millennia, these opulent blooms have inspired poets, healers, artists, and gardeners across continents. From imperial Chinese gardens where they symbolized wealth and honor, through medieval European monasteries where monks cultivated them as medicine, to contemporary gardens where they reign as irreplaceable perennials, peonies have maintained an exalted status that transcends fleeting horticultural fashions.
Ancient China: The King of Flowers
The peony's story begins in China, where cultivation extends back at least two thousand years. The herbaceous peony (Paeonia lactiflora) and tree peony (Paeonia suffruticosa) both originated in Chinese mountain regions, where wild populations still grow today. Chinese gardeners recognized these plants' exceptional qualities early, elevating them from wildflowers to cultivated treasures.
During the Sui Dynasty (581-618 CE), peonies entered imperial gardens, beginning an association with power, prosperity, and nobility that would define Chinese peony culture. The Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE) witnessed the peony's ascension to preeminence among all flowers. Emperors cultivated vast peony collections in palace gardens, and the capital city of Luoyang became the empire's peony center, a distinction it maintains today.
Tang poets celebrated peonies with extraordinary fervor. The renowned poet Li Bai composed verses praising their beauty, while others compared peonies to imperial consorts and used them as metaphors for feminine beauty and grace. The flower earned the title "King of Flowers" or "Queen of Flowers" depending on translation, a designation reflecting its supreme status in Chinese floriculture.
The cultivation of tree peonies reached remarkable sophistication during the Tang and subsequent Song Dynasty (960-1279 CE). Gardeners developed hundreds of cultivars through careful selection and breeding, creating flowers with increasingly complex forms, novel colors, and massive blooms. Some tree peony flowers measured over a foot across, with densely packed petals creating spherical forms of breathtaking luxury.
Specific cultivars received poetic names describing their appearance or the emotions they evoked: "Zhao Fen" (Bright Pink), "Luoyang Red," "Green Dragon Lying in a Ink Pool." These names often referenced classical literature, historical figures, or philosophical concepts, embedding peonies within broader cultural frameworks.
Peony cultivation manuals appeared as early as the Song Dynasty, documenting cultivation techniques, describing varieties, and recording the flowers' cultural significance. These texts represent some of the world's earliest specialized horticultural literature, demonstrating the sophistication of Chinese botanical knowledge.
The distinction between herbaceous peonies, which die back to the ground each winter, and tree peonies, which develop permanent woody stems, was clearly recognized. Tree peonies commanded higher prestige and prices, as their scarcity, demanding cultivation requirements, and spectacular blooms made them the ultimate status symbols for wealthy households.
Peonies featured prominently in Chinese art across media. Painters depicted them in scrolls and screens, ceramicists incorporated peony motifs into porcelain designs, textile workers embroidered them onto silk, and craftsmen carved them into jade and wood. The peony became inseparable from Chinese aesthetic sensibilities and remained a dominant decorative motif for centuries.
Medicine and Myth: Peonies in Traditional Healing
Beyond ornamental cultivation, peonies played crucial roles in traditional Chinese medicine. Peony roots, particularly those of Paeonia lactiflora, appeared in medical texts dating back to the Han Dynasty (206 BCE - 220 CE). The Shennong Bencao Jing (Divine Farmer's Materia Medica), one of China's oldest pharmaceutical texts, described medicinal applications of peony root.
Two preparations dominated traditional medicine: white peony root (bai shao) from cultivated plants and red peony root (chi shao) from wild plants. These roots treated numerous conditions including menstrual irregularities, abdominal pain, muscle spasms, and various inflammatory conditions. Traditional medical theory held that peony root nourished blood and regulated qi (vital energy), making it valuable in numerous therapeutic formulations.
Modern pharmaceutical research has identified several bioactive compounds in peony roots, including paeoniflorin and other monoterpene glycosides, lending some scientific credibility to traditional applications. Contemporary research explores anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and immunomodulatory properties of peony extracts, though clinical applications remain limited outside traditional medicine contexts.
The genus name Paeonia derives from Greek mythology, specifically the physician Paeon, who according to legend learned herbal healing from the gods and used peony root to cure Pluto's wounds inflicted by Hercules. This mythological connection reflects ancient Greek recognition of peonies' medicinal properties, independent of Chinese traditions.
European medieval herbalists also valued peonies medicinally, growing them in monastery gardens alongside other healing plants. They believed peony roots and seeds treated epilepsy, nightmares, and various nervous afflictions. Medieval European medicine often attributed magical properties to peonies, advising that they be harvested at night to avoid detection by woodpeckers, whose jealousy supposedly endangered harvesters.
European Discovery: From Monastery Gardens to Estate Borders
Peonies reached Europe along ancient trade routes, though precise timing remains uncertain. Several peony species native to Southern Europe and the Mediterranean region, including Paeonia officinalis and Paeonia mascula, grew wild and entered cultivation for medicinal purposes during classical antiquity.
The common garden peony (P. officinalis), with its deep red, semi-double flowers, became a fixture in medieval European gardens by the 13th century. Monasteries cultivated it primarily for medicinal applications, but gardeners appreciated its ornamental qualities. Unlike many exotic plants requiring special care, peonies proved remarkably hardy, surviving in gardens for decades or even centuries with minimal attention.
European knowledge of Chinese tree peonies and improved herbaceous varieties remained limited until the 18th century, when expanded trade with Asia brought reports of extraordinary peonies unlike anything Europeans had seen. Early travelers' accounts described tree peonies with wonder, noting blooms of immense size and refinement far exceeding European varieties.
The first successful introduction of Chinese tree peonies to Europe occurred in 1787 when Sir Joseph Banks received plants at Kew Gardens in England. However, these plants struggled in British conditions, and successful cultivation required decades of experimentation. French gardeners proved more successful, and by the early 19th century, French nurseries were importing Chinese tree peonies and beginning breeding programs.
The French passion for peonies during the 19th century rivaled even Chinese enthusiasm. Nurserymen like Modeste Guérin and Victor Lemoine became celebrated for introducing superior varieties. Napoleon's wife, Empress Joséphine, cultivated peonies at Malmaison alongside her famous rose collection, lending aristocratic cachet to peony growing.
Chinese herbaceous peonies (P. lactiflora) arrived in Europe during the early 19th century, providing breeding material far superior to the limited P. officinalis cultivars previously available. These plants offered larger flowers, more delicate colors, better forms, and taller, more elegant growth habits. European breeders immediately recognized their potential and began extensive hybridization programs.
The Golden Age: Victorian and Edwardian Peony Culture
The 19th century witnessed explosive growth in peony breeding and popularity, particularly in France, England, and later the United States. This period established many cultivars still treasured today and developed the diverse peony palette modern gardeners enjoy.
French breeders dominated early efforts. Auguste Dessert, Félix Crousse, and others introduced hundreds of herbaceous peony cultivars between 1850 and 1920. These breeders developed the classic peony forms: singles with a single row of petals surrounding golden stamens, semi-doubles with multiple petal rows and visible stamens, doubles with densely packed petals hiding stamens entirely, Japanese forms with outer petals surrounding modified stamens resembling a central cushion, and anemone forms intermediate between Japanese and double types.
Color breeding expanded possibilities dramatically. While early varieties centered on pink, red, and white, breeders developed coral, salmon, cream, and yellow tones. 'Festiva Maxima' (1851), a white double with crimson flecks, became one of the most successful peonies ever introduced and remains widely grown today. 'Sarah Bernhardt' (1906), a fragrant pink double, achieved similar lasting popularity.
British gardeners embraced peonies enthusiastically, incorporating them into herbaceous borders—the mixed perennial plantings that became signature features of English garden style. Peonies' structural presence, spectacular if brief bloom season, and attractive foliage made them essential border components. Garden writers like Gertrude Jekyll advocated for thoughtful peony placement, combining them with complementary perennials for season-long interest.
The Royal Horticultural Society began evaluating and awarding peonies, establishing standards that influenced breeding priorities. Award-winning varieties gained commercial advantage, encouraging breeders to pursue excellence in form, color, substance, and garden performance.
American peony breeding emerged as a major force in the late 19th century. A. P. Saunders, beginning in the 1910s, conducted groundbreaking work hybridizing different peony species, particularly incorporating P. mlokosewitschii and other species to expand the color range and introduce yellow into herbaceous peonies. His work laid groundwork for modern hybrid peonies combining characteristics from multiple species.
The American Peony Society, founded in 1903, promoted peony culture through publications, shows, and registration of new cultivars. This organization established systematic evaluation criteria, registered cultivars to prevent naming confusion, and facilitated communication among breeders and enthusiasts. Its registry eventually encompassed thousands of named varieties from breeders worldwide.
Japanese Innovation: A Parallel Tradition
While European and American breeders worked with Chinese peonies, Japan developed its own sophisticated peony culture. Japanese gardeners had cultivated peonies since at least the 8th century, when both herbaceous and tree peonies arrived from China along with Buddhist influences.
Japanese aesthetic preferences produced distinctive cultivar types. Rather than pursuing ever-larger, more densely doubled flowers, Japanese breeders often favored restraint and naturalness. They particularly appreciated the form now called "Japanese type" in the West—single outer petals surrounding a central boss of modified stamens. This form's elegant simplicity aligned with broader Japanese aesthetic principles valuing suggestion over ostentation.
Tree peonies flourished in Japanese temple gardens and aristocratic estates. Breeders developed cultivars with characteristics distinct from Chinese varieties, including unique color patterns, petal textures, and growth habits. Japanese tree peonies often featured lighter, more delicate colors than boldly colored Chinese selections, with subtle color gradations and patterns prized over solid colors.
The city of Osaka became particularly associated with tree peony cultivation, developing local specialties and hosting viewing events during bloom season. These traditions continued through the Edo period (1603-1868) and into modern times, maintaining peony culture as a living tradition rather than merely historical practice.
Japanese hybridizers eventually created intersectional hybrids—crosses between herbaceous and tree peonies—though credit for the first successful crosses typically goes to Japanese breeder Toichi Itoh in the 1940s-1950s. These "Itoh hybrids" combined tree peony flower qualities with herbaceous peony growth habits, creating an entirely new category that would later revolutionize Western peony breeding.
Scientific Understanding: Unraveling Peony Biology
The 20th century brought scientific rigor to understanding peony biology, ecology, and cultivation requirements. Botanists clarified the genus Paeonia, determining it comprised approximately 30-35 species distributed across Asia, Europe, and western North America. Taxonomic studies revealed relationships among species and identified distinct evolutionary lineages.
Understanding peony germination proved crucial for breeding programs. Peony seeds exhibit double dormancy, requiring warm periods followed by cold stratification before germination occurs. This mechanism, evolved to time germination appropriately in seasonal climates, meant seeds might take 18-24 months to germinate under natural conditions. Breeders developed techniques to accelerate this process, enabling faster evaluation of seedlings.
Research into peony longevity revealed these plants could live for decades or even over a century when properly sited. This extraordinary persistence resulted from their storage roots, which accumulated resources enabling plants to survive unfavorable conditions and produce vigorous growth each spring. This knowledge emphasized proper initial planting—peonies resented disturbance once established, so correct siting from the start proved essential.
Studies of peony cold requirements explained their limited success in warm climates. Herbaceous peonies required substantial winter chilling to break dormancy and initiate proper spring growth. Without adequate cold, plants produced weak growth and poor flowering or failed entirely. This knowledge directed peony breeding toward warm-climate tolerance for regions unable to grow traditional varieties.
Peony diseases and pests received detailed study. Botrytis blight, caused by Botrytis paeoniae and B. cinerea, emerged as the most serious disease problem, particularly in humid climates. Researchers identified cultural practices reducing disease incidence—proper air circulation, removal of infected tissue, avoiding overhead irrigation—and developed resistant varieties.
The discovery that peony fragrance derived from complex mixtures of volatile compounds sparked breeding efforts to enhance scent. Some varieties produced intense, rose-like fragrances, while others carried citrus notes or lacked scent entirely. Understanding genetic control of fragrance production enabled targeted selection for fragrant offspring.
The Itoh Revolution: Intersectional Hybrids Transform Peony Breeding
The development of intersectional hybrids, commonly called Itoh hybrids, represents perhaps the most significant 20th century advance in peony breeding. These hybrids combine herbaceous and tree peony characteristics, producing plants with herbaceous growth habits (dying to ground level in winter) but large, tree peony-like flowers in colors previously unavailable in herbaceous types.
Japanese breeder Toichi Itoh worked for decades attempting to cross herbaceous and tree peonies, finally succeeding in 1948. His four successful seedlings bloomed in 1963-1964, after his death. These original hybrids proved viable and fertile, establishing the foundation for an entirely new peony category.
American breeder Don Smith acquired Itoh's hybrids and continued development, introducing the first intersectional hybrids to commerce: 'Yellow Crown,' 'Yellow Dream,' 'Yellow Emperor,' and 'Yellow Heaven,' all featuring the clear yellow coloration impossible in traditional herbaceous peonies. These introductions generated enormous excitement among peony enthusiasts.
Subsequent breeders expanded intersectional hybrid diversity, developing red, pink, lavender, and multicolored varieties. The introduction of 'Bartzella' in 1986, with its large, clear yellow, semi-double flowers and vigorous growth, demonstrated these hybrids' commercial potential. 'Bartzella' became one of the best-selling peonies ever released, commanding premium prices decades after introduction.
Intersectional hybrids offered several advantages beyond novel colors. They typically produced more flowers per plant than standard herbaceous peonies, bloomed between early herbaceous and later tree peony seasons, displayed excellent foliage quality, and showed good disease resistance. Their herbaceous growth habit meant they required no pruning and fit conventional perennial garden management.
By the early 21st century, hundreds of intersectional hybrid cultivars existed, with new introductions released annually. These plants transformed peony breeding priorities and demonstrated that interspecific hybridization could produce commercially viable, horticulturally superior plants combining the best attributes of different peony lineages.
Contemporary Cultivation: Science Meets Tradition
Modern peony cultivation synthesizes centuries of accumulated knowledge with contemporary horticultural science. Commercial production occurs primarily in the Netherlands, United States, Canada, and New Zealand, with each region specializing in particular market segments.
Cut flower production represents a major industry. Dutch growers force peonies in greenhouses, harvesting stems year-round for European markets. Peonies have become one of the most valuable cut flowers, prized for weddings and special events. Advances in post-harvest handling—proper cutting stage, cold storage protocols, and preservative solutions—extended vase life and improved flower quality, supporting commercial viability.
Cold storage technology revolutionized the cut peony industry. Growers could harvest peony stems in spring, store them at specific temperatures for months, and then stimulate them to bloom on demand. This capability enabled year-round supply despite peonies' natural spring-blooming habit, transforming a seasonal flower into an evergreen commercial product.
Field production of peony plants for garden sale continues in various regions. Alaska emerged as a significant production area, as its long summer days and cool temperatures produced robust plants and high-quality cut flowers. The Alaska peony industry developed into a substantial agricultural sector, shipping both cut flowers and roots to markets worldwide.
Breeding programs continue in multiple countries, pursuing diverse objectives. Some breeders focus on extending the color range, particularly developing true red herbaceous peonies without purple undertones and improving yellow tones. Others emphasize fragrance, creating intensely scented varieties for gardeners valuing perfume as highly as appearance.
Disease resistance breeding addresses persistent problems, particularly Botrytis susceptibility. Varieties with natural resistance reduce chemical input requirements and succeed in gardens where susceptible types struggle. Breeders also pursue improved stem strength, as many double-flowered peonies produce blooms so massive that stems bend or break, particularly after rain.
Climate adaptation represents an emerging priority. Breeding warm-climate tolerant varieties expands peony cultivation into regions previously unsuitable. Low-chill varieties requiring less winter cold enable southern gardeners to grow peonies successfully. Conversely, breeding for extreme cold hardiness serves northern regions where even traditional hardy peonies struggle.
Cultural Significance in East and West
Throughout their cultivation history, peonies have carried profound cultural meanings that evolved across time and geography. In China, peonies maintained their association with wealth, honor, prosperity, and feminine beauty. They appear in Chinese art continuously from ancient times through the present, featured on everything from imperial robes to contemporary advertising.
The city of Luoyang hosts an annual peony festival attracting millions of visitors who come to view spectacular displays of tree peonies in parks and gardens. This tradition connects modern China with Tang Dynasty peony culture, maintaining living links to historical practices. Peonies appear on Chinese currency, stamps, and state occasions, cementing their status as national symbols.
In Western cultures, peonies acquired somewhat different associations. Victorian language of flowers ascribed meanings including bashfulness, shame, or happy marriage depending on color and source, though these attributions never achieved the consistency of some flowers' symbolism. More broadly, peonies suggested romance, prosperity, and good fortune—meanings translating across cultures fairly consistently.
Peonies became traditional flowers for 12th wedding anniversaries, symbolizing happy marriage and prosperity. Their use in bridal bouquets and wedding decorations reflected associations with romance and new beginnings. The flowers' lush, romantic appearance and often intoxicating fragrance made them natural choices for celebrations.
American Memorial Day traditions incorporated peonies, as their late spring bloom coincided with the holiday. The flowers decorated graves and memorials, their brief but glorious flowering season perhaps suggesting life's ephemeral nature and the importance of honoring memory.
Preservation and Heritage Varieties
As modern breeding produced ever more cultivars, interest grew in preserving historic varieties representing important milestones in breeding history or possessing irreplaceable qualities. Many 19th and early 20th century varieties disappeared from commerce as newer introductions displaced them, but some survived in old gardens, cemeteries, and historical sites.
The Peony Garden at Nichols Arboretum in Ann Arbor, Michigan, maintains one of the most comprehensive historic peony collections in North America, with over 800 varieties including many rare and endangered cultivars. Similar collections exist at other botanical gardens and arboreta, serving as living museums preserving genetic diversity and horticultural heritage.
Heritage variety preservation faces challenges unique to peonies. Since peonies live for decades, old cultivars can survive in neglected gardens long after becoming commercially extinct. However, correct identification proves difficult, as labels disappear and institutional memory fades. Distinguishing between similar varieties requires expertise and often depends on subtle characteristics.
DNA analysis offers new tools for identifying and authenticating historic cultivars. As genetic databases expand, comparing DNA from garden plants against authenticated specimens could resolve identification questions and detect mislabeling. This technology may help recover lost varieties and ensure preserved collections contain correctly identified material.
The recognition that many "antique" peonies possess qualities absent in modern varieties—particular fragrance profiles, superior vigor, better disease resistance—has sparked renewed interest in older cultivars. Some gardeners specifically seek out varieties introduced before 1950, valuing their proven performance and historical significance.
Challenges and Future Directions
Contemporary peony cultivation faces various challenges requiring ongoing innovation. Climate change affects peonies through multiple mechanisms. Warming winters provide insufficient chilling in some traditional growing regions, potentially requiring shifts to late-flowering or low-chill varieties. Altered precipitation patterns affect irrigation requirements and disease pressure. More extreme weather events damage flowers and plants.
Disease management remains problematic, particularly for organic growers unable to use synthetic fungicides. Breeding resistant varieties helps, but Botrytis and other pathogens continue causing losses. Research into biological control agents and cultural practices reducing disease incidence offers alternatives to chemical management.
The cut flower industry faces sustainability questions regarding energy inputs for forcing and cold storage. Developing more energy-efficient production systems and exploring alternative technologies could reduce environmental impacts while maintaining commercial viability.
Peony breeding enters a new phase as molecular tools become available. Understanding genetic control of flower color, form, fragrance, and timing could enable marker-assisted selection, accelerating breeding by identifying desirable seedlings before flowering. Genomic studies might reveal genes controlling key traits, potentially enabling more targeted crosses.
Polyploidy breeding—creating plants with extra chromosome sets—offers possibilities for developing peonies with improved vigor, larger flowers, and novel characteristics. Some breeders experiment with chromosome doubling and crosses between plants with different ploidy levels, though results remain preliminary.
Species exploration continues discovering overlooked peony species with potential breeding value. Recent botanical expeditions in remote regions of China, Central Asia, and elsewhere have documented populations that might contribute novel traits. Conservation of wild peony species becomes increasingly urgent as habitat loss threatens some populations.
The development of truly perennial peonies for warm climates represents a holy grail for breeders. If varieties could be developed tolerating low winter chill while maintaining flowering quality, vast new markets would open in subtropical and tropical regions currently unable to grow peonies. Success would require incorporating genetics from warm-adapted species or inducing mutations overcoming chilling requirements.
The Enduring Appeal
After more than two thousand years of cultivation, peonies retain their position among the most cherished garden plants. What explains this extraordinary endurance? Perhaps it lies in their combination of opulent beauty and reassuring reliability. Peonies deliver spectacular displays yet tolerate neglect, outliving the gardeners who plant them. They mark time's passage, returning faithfully each spring as living connections between past and present.
Their cultural significance across diverse civilizations suggests peonies touch something universal in human aesthetic response. Whether in Tang Dynasty palace gardens or contemporary suburban yards, these flowers command attention and admiration. Their brief bloom season intensifies rather than diminishes their value, as anticipation and ephemeral beauty heighten appreciation.
The peony's story continues unfolding. Modern breeders push boundaries while preservationists protect heritage. Gardeners worldwide plant peonies with the same mixture of hope and certainty that motivated ancient Chinese emperors and Victorian estate owners. In this continuity lies the peony's deepest lesson: some forms of beauty transcend time, fashion, and culture, speaking to something enduring in the human spirit that recognizes and honors excellence when it blooms.
